Cocaine & Crack

(cocaine - Colombian coca cultivation and herbicides) "The United States has had limited success in achieving its primary objective of reducing the flow of illegal drugs from Colombia. Despite 2 years of extensive herbicide spraying [source country eradication], U.S. estimates show there has not been any net reduction in [Colombian] coca cultivation - net coca cultivation actually increased 50 percent."

(history - cocaine) "The use of cocaine has persisted for centuries: sixteenth century Incan tribes’ use of cocaine [*] fascinated conquistadores²⁷ in the same way Americans were mesmerized by the drug’s prevalence among Hollywood stars in the 1980s.²⁸ Until the end of the nineteenth century, cocaine was a prominent feature of U.S. medical journals.²⁹ Druggists believed that the coca plant, the source of all forms of cocaine, could relieve ailments from stomach pain to headaches.³⁰ By the beginning of the twentieth century, however, the dangers of addiction became apparent, and a movement to outlaw cocaine was born.³¹"

^{* Editor's Note. It is likely that this source is referring to coca leaf, and not processed cocaine as cocaine alkaloid was not extracted from coca leaves until around 1860.}

(history - coca) "Modern archaeology suggests that descendants of nomadic Siberian people may have established communities in the Andes Mountains as early as 10,000 B.C.E.³⁷ Aymara-speaking tribes migrated to the Bolivian altiplano³⁸ around 700 B.C.E, and sometime after 700 B.C.E, Andean people began growing coca in the altiplano.³⁹ Before the Spanish conquest, Indians of eastern Bolivia grew coca for tea, chewing, and ritual use."

(history - cocaine synthesis) "A new use for the leaf was discovered between 1855 and 1860. Two German scientists, Goedeke and Niemann, are given credit for having first extracted the pure cocaine alkaloid from coca leaves. While the coca leaf had long been used in Andean medicine to alleviate pain and suffering, the discovery of cocaine resulted in the development of the first local anesthetic in Western medicine. In 1884 Viennese ophthalmologist Carl Koller performed the first operation using cocaine on a patient with glaucoma. This new drug was not only completely legal then, it was officially promoted by the US government and Western medical experts as a wonder drug and panacea for a wide variety of ailments. Cocaine became very popular throughout the West being an ingredient in many different medications and elixirs including the first Coca-Cola."

(history - crack cocaine) "Most Americans first learned about crack cocaine through media stories, which usually disclosed tragic details of public figures’ addictions. Coverage of the dangers associated with the use of all forms of cocaine intensified in 1979 with the emergence of the practice of smoking cocaine, colloquially referred to as “freebasing.”⁶³ Rolling Stone magazine focused on smokeable forms of cocaine, calling it the “top-of-the-line model of the Cadillac of drugs,” yet cautioned that “freebasing seemed to be much more dangerous than snorting.”⁶⁴ In 1980, when comedian Richard Pryor sustained third-degree burns after reportedly using a butane torch to light cocaine freebase, newspapers capitalized on the incident.⁶⁵ Outlets including The Philadelphia Inquirer, Chicago Tribune, and The Boston Globe ran stories about the new trend of freebasing cocaine.⁶⁶

"In 1985, The New York Times became the first major media outlet to use the term “crack cocaine,”⁶⁷ and a follow-up article appeared on the front page less than two weeks later, detailing crack cocaine and its intensely addictive quality.⁶⁸ By 1986, major news outlets had declared crack cocaine usage to be in “epidemic proportions.”⁶⁹

"High-profile deaths by drug overdoses instigated a flurry of media coverage of the issue of crack cocaine. Len Bias, a University of Maryland basketball star, died of an apparent cocaine overdose just two days after he was drafted to play for the Boston Celtics.⁷⁰ Within weeks, a media frenzy had erupted.⁷¹ On May 18, 1986, three New York City newspapers printed articles about rampant use of crack cocaine.⁷² Television programs also spotlighted increased drug use, including a two-hour CBS broadcast, 48 Hours on Crack Street.⁷³

Cocaine & Crack - Data

(2010 - cocaine - long term usage trends) "There have been some important changes in the levels of overall cocaine use over the life of MTF [the Monitoring the Future survey]. Use among 12th graders originally burgeoned in the late 1970s and remained fairly stable through the first half of the 1980s before starting a precipitous decline after 1986. Annual prevalence among 12th graders dropped by about three quarters between 1986 and 1992. Between 1992 and 1999, use reversed course again and doubled before declining by 2000; 12th-grade use stands at just 2.9% in 2010. Use also rose among 8th and 10th graders after 1992 before reaching recent peak levels in 1998 and 1999, respectively. Over the last decade, use declined in all three grades—most recently in 12th grade."

(2010 - cocaine - user counts by race) An estimated 871,000 Americans aged 12 or older used crack cocaine in 2010. Of those, 554 thousand were White (64%), 256 thousand were Black (24%), and 84 thousand were Hispanic (10%).

(2008 - cocaine - user counts by race) An estimated 1.1 million Americans aged 12 or older used crack cocaine at least once in 2008. Of those, 726 thousand were White (65%), 256 thousand were Black (23%), and 84 thousand were Hispanic (8%).

(2009 - cocaine - supply shortages) "Cocaine shortages have persisted in many U.S. drug markets since early 2007, primarily because of decreased cocaine production in Colombia but also because of increased worldwide demand for cocaine, especially in Europe; high cocaine seizure levels that continued through 2009; and enhanced GOM counterdrug efforts. These factors most likely resulted in decreased amounts of cocaine being transported from Colombia to the U.S.–Mexico border for subsequent smuggling into the United States."

(2009 - cocaine - coca cultivation and cocaine production)
"• The global area under coca cultivation declined to 158,800 ha in 2009 (5%), by 13% since 2007 or by 28% since 2000.

"• The estimated global cocaine production fell from 1,024 mt in 2007 to 865 mt in 2008 (-16%). Global fresh coca leaf production fell by 4% in 2009 (by 14% between 2007 and 2009)."

(cocaine & crack - use by youth)
(2009) "According to the 2009 Monitoring the Future survey—a national survey of 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-graders—there were continuing declines reported in the use of powder cocaine, with past-year†† usage levels reaching their lowest point since the early 1990s. Significant declines in use were measured from 2008 to 2009 among 12th-graders across all three survey categories: lifetime use decreased from 7.2 percent to 6.0 percent; past-year use dropped from 4.4 percent to 3.4 percent; and past-month use dropped from 1.9 percent to 1.3 percent. Survey measures showed other positive findings among 12th-graders as well; their perceived risk of harm associated with powder cocaine use increased significantly during the same period.

(2008) "According to the 2008 Monitoring the Future survey—a national survey of 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-graders—cocaine use among students did not change significantly, though it remained at unacceptably high levels: 3.0 percent of 8th-graders, 4.5 percent of 10th-graders, and 7.2 percent of 12th-graders have tried cocaine; 0.8 percent of 8th-graders, 1.2 percent of 10th-graders, and 1.9 percent of 12th-graders were current (past-month) cocaine users. Crack cocaine use, which has been steadily declining since 1990, showed a significant decrease among 12th-graders in the past year.

(2007) "According to the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 35.9 million Americans aged 12 and older reported having used cocaine, and 8.6 million reported having used crack. An estimated 2.1 million Americans were current (past-month) users of cocaine; 610,000 were current users of crack. There were an estimated 906,000 new users of cocaine in 2007—most were 18 or older when they first used cocaine. Among young adults aged 18 to 25, the past-year use rate was 6.4 percent, showing no significant difference from the previous year."

(2007 - cocaine - area under coca cultivation) "In 2007, the total area under coca cultivation in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru rose to its highest level since 2001. The 16% year-on-year increase brought the total area under cultivation to 181,600 ha. The increase itself was led by a 27% increase in the area under cultivation in Colombia, followed by smaller increases of 5% and 4% in Bolivia and Peru respectively. Despite these recent increases, the global area under coca cultivation continues to be lower than in the 1990s and 18% below the level recorded in 2000 (221,300 ha).

"Fifty-five per cent of coca bush was cultivated in Colombia, followed by Peru (30%) and Bolivia (16%). In 2007, Colombia remained the world’s largest coca cultivating country with 99,000 ha of coca bush, an increase of 27%, or 21,000 ha, over 2006."

(2007 - cocaine - yields in areas under coca cultivation) "Despite the large increase in area under coca cultivation recorded in Colombia, low yields seemed to limit production, keeping the global potential production of cocaine fairly stable. In 2007, global potential production of cocaine reached 994 mt, slightly above the 984 mt recorded for 2006. Of this total, 600 mt were produced in Colombia, 290 mt in Peru and 104 mt in Bolivia."

(2006 - cocaine - global interception and seizures) "Cocaine seizures (at street purity levels) fell 6%, from their record high of 750 mt in 2005, to 706 mt in 2006, reversing the previous upward trend. Global cocaine seizures are twice as high as they were a decade ago, which is impressive given the overall stability in cocaine production over the same period. This is thought to be the result of greater efficiency in law enforcement services and improved sharing of intelligence information, both of which enable seizures to be made before the cocaine reaches its final destination.

"The global cocaine interception rate remains high

"As a result, the calculated global cocaine interception rate remained near 42% in 2006, up from 29% in 1998. A portion of this increase is due to improvements in law enforcement. However, a small portion may also be due to the double counting of seizures when more than one law enforcement agency is involved (e.g. customs and police). The potential for double counting becomes greater when different countries work together. The global interception rate was calculated on the basis of a global cocaine production of 984 metric mt in 2006 and global seizures of 706 metric mt at street purity, which – given a global average cocaine purity of 59% in 2006 (as reported by member states to UNODC in the annual reports questionnaire) - would be equivalent to pure cocaine seizures of some 416 metric mt. and report the same seizure(s). As cooperation among the various law enforcement agencies has increased in recent years, the likelihood of double counting of cocaine seizures increased as well."

(2001 - cocaine - destruction of coca fields from fumigation) "From December 2000 to February 2001, US-backed antidrug drives resulted in the destruction of more than 29,000 hectares of coca fields (enough to produce 200-250 tons of cocaine annually)."

Cocaine & Crack - Effects

(cocaine - overview) "Cocaine is a sympathomimetic drug with CNS stimulant and euphoriant properties. High doses can cause panic, schizophrenic-like symptoms, seizures, hyperthermia, hypertension, arrhythmias, stroke, aortic dissection, intestinal ischemia, and MI."

"Most cocaine users are episodic recreational users. However, about 25% (or more) of users meet criteria for abuse or dependence. Use among adolescents has declined recently. Availability of highly biologically active forms, such as crack cocaine, has worsened the problem of cocaine dependence. Most cocaine in the US is about 50 to 60% pure; it may contain a wide array of fillers, adulterants, and contaminants."

"Most cocaine in the US is volatilized and inhaled, but it may be snorted, or injected IV. For inhalation, the powdered hydrochloride salt is converted to a more volatile form, usually by adding NaHCO3, water, and heat. The resultant precipitate (crack cocaine) is volatilized by heating (it is not burned) and inhaled. Onset of effect is quick, and intensity of the high rivals IV injection. Tolerance to cocaine occurs, and withdrawal from heavy use is characterized by somnolence, difficulty concentrating, increased appetite, and depression. The tendency to continue taking the drug is strong after a period of withdrawal."

(cocaine - freebase and crack) "Cocaine is derived from the coca plant, which, upon consumption, anesthetizes and stimulates the central nervous system.⁷⁵ The coca plant can be chewed to induce a high and is difficult to obtain in the United States, as cocaine is usually exported from South America in powder form.⁷⁶

"The chemical name for powder cocaine is cocaine hydrochloride, which is created through a complex process of heating and cooling coca leaves.⁷⁷ After pulverizing coca leaves into a coarse powder, alcohol is added and distilled off in order to extract the most pure form of cocaine alkaloid.⁷⁸ Powder cocaine is ingested intranasally, through snorting, and takes effect within five to fifteen minutes; the euphoria lasts up to two hours.⁷⁹

"Cocaine freebase, first created in the 1970s, is smokeable. To create cocaine freebase, cocaine hydrochloride must be heated and then mixed with ammonia and ether.⁸⁰ The substance cools and yields smokeable cocaine crystals after drying.⁸¹ Ether, an extremely flammable substance, renders the process of smoking cocaine freebase quite dangerous.⁸² After inhalation, cocaine reaches the brain within ten seconds, and the high lasts for up to five minutes.⁸³

"In the 1980s, a less dangerous form of cocaine freebase was invented: crack cocaine.⁸⁴ When cocaine powder is mixed with baking soda to form a paste and heated, the substance hardens into rocks.⁸⁵ This product was given the street name “crack,” for the crackling sound it makes when smoked.⁸⁶"

(cocaine - effects on the brain) "Cocaine is a strong central nervous system stimulant that increases levels of dopamine, a brain chemical associated with pleasure and movement, in the brain’s reward circuit. Certain brain cells, or neurons, use dopamine to communicate. Normally, dopamine is released by a neuron in response to a pleasurable signal (e.g., the smell of good food), and then recycled back into the cell that released it, shutting off the signal between neurons. Cocaine acts by preventing the dopamine from being recycled, causing excessive amounts of dopamine to build up, amplifying the message, and ultimately disrupting normal communication. It is this excess of dopamine that is responsible for cocaine’s euphoric effects. With repeated use, cocaine can cause long-term changes in the brain’s reward system and in other brain systems as well, which may eventually lead to addiction. With repeated use, tolerance to the cocaine high also often develops. Many cocaine abusers report that they seek but fail to achieve as much pleasure as they did from their first exposure. Some users will increase their dose in an attempt to intensify and prolong the euphoria, but this can also increase the risk of adverse psychological or physiological effects."

(cocaine - toxicity or overdose) "An overdose [of cocaine] may cause severe anxiety, panic, agitation, aggression, sleeplessness, hallucinations, paranoid delusions, impaired judgment, tremors, seizures, and delirium. Mydriasis and diaphoresis are apparent, and heart rate and BP are increased. Death may result from MI or arrhythmias.

"Severe overdose causes a syndrome of acute psychosis (eg, schizophrenic-like symptoms), hypertension, hyperthermia, rhabdomyolysis, coagulopathy, renal failure, and seizures. Patients with extreme clinical toxicity may, on a genetic basis, have decreased (atypical) serum cholinesterase, an enzyme needed for clearance of cocaine.

"The concurrent use of cocaine and alcohol produces a condensation product, cocaethylene, which has stimulant properties and may contribute to toxicity."

(cocaine - treatment) "Treatment of mild cocaine intoxication is generally unnecessary because the drug is extremely short-acting. Benzodiazepines are the preferred initial treatment for most toxic effects, including CNS excitation and seizures, tachycardia, and hypertension .... Hyperthermia can be life threatening and should be managed aggressively with sedation plus evaporative cooling, ice packs, and maintenance of intravascular volume and urine flow with IV normal saline solution. .... Occasionally, severely agitated patients must be pharmacologically paralyzed and mechanically ventilated to ameliorate acidosis, rhabdomyolysis, or multisystem dysfunction."

(cocaine - black cocaine) "Black cocaine is created by a chemical process used by drug traffickers to evade detection by drug sniffing dogs and chemical tests. The traffickers add charcoal and other chemicals to cocaine, which transforms it into a black substance that has no smell and does not react when subjected to the usual chemical tests."

(2004 - economics - price of cocaine) In 2004, a kilogram of cocaine base in Colombia typically sold for $810 and a kilogram of cocaine typically sold for $1,713. In Peru in 2004, a kilogram of cocaine base typically sold for $700 and a kilogram of cocaine typically sold for $1,000. In Mexico in 2004, a kilogram of cocaine typically sold for $7,880. In the United States in 2001, a kilogram of cocaine typically sold for $23,500.

Cocaine & Crack - Coca Leaf

(coca leaf - difference between coca leaf and cocaine) "Coca leaves are grown from bushes native to the Andes. The leaves contain alkaloids that can be extracted to produce commercial cocaine."

(coca leaf - uses) "Coca has traditionally been used in one of two ways: either as a chew or in coca tea.⁴⁵ Coca leaves contain many nutrients, including vitamins A and B, phosphorus, and iron.⁴⁶ In high-altitude communities where green vegetables are scarce, the extra nutrients provided by coca leaves are often much needed.⁴⁷ Coca is also widely used to diminish the effects of the decreased oxygen at high altitudes, as any visitor to an Andean city will discover.⁴⁸ Much like coffee, coca is a mild stimulant and is the social drink of choice for many. Coca is also believed to be a panacea for numerous ailments and is even used as an aphrodisiac.⁴⁹"

(coca leaf - use as an anesthetic) "One of the main properties of the coca leaf, which has been and continues to be used industrially, is its medical potential as an anaesthetic and analgesic. This characteristic of cocaine, which was part of ancestral practices and knowledge in the Andean-Amazon region, came to light in the 1880s and led to a revolution in medical science, particularly in surgery. As a local anaesthetic, it offered an alternative for operations that had previously been painful and hazardous. These properties were used to ease childbirth pains and dental treatments, among other things, taking the coca leaf and cocaine rapidly to the pinnacle of pharmacology and medicine.

"In 1923, Richard Willstatter of the University of Munich synthesised the cocaine molecule for the first time, basing his work on the molecule found in the coca leaf and maintaining its anaesthetic and energizing effects, which later found a series of applications. Unlike natural cocaine isolated from the coca leaf, the synthetic version lacks vaso-constrictive properties. This was useful for some applications, but not for others. A long list of pharmaceuticals (benzocaine, novocaine/procaine, lidocaine, etc.) was soon included in the anaesthetist’s vade mecum."

(coca leaf - effects) "Coca leaf consumption is an integral part of Andean cultural tradition and world view. The principle uses are:

• Energizer: provides an energy boost for working or for combating fatigue and cold. Although it reduces feelings of hunger, the coca leaf is not considered a food.
• Medicinal: in teas, syrups and plasters for diagnosing and treating a series of illnesses. It is used as a local anesthetic.
• Sacred: to communicate with the supernatural world and obtain its protection, especially with offerings to the Pachamama, the personification and spiritual form of the
earth.
• Social: to maintain social cohesion and cooperation among members of the community, it is used in community ceremonies, as a “payment” for labor exchange and a social relations instrument."

(coca leaf - legal uses) "Legal production of coca in the Andean region continues for use as a beverage flavouring (mostly for Coca-Cola), the leaf being exported to the US where it is ‘de-cocainised’ by a pharmaceutical company licensed by the federal Drug Enforcement Agency. The extracted cocaine is used as an anaesthetic medicine around the world."

(coca leaf - prophesy) "The overwhelming scientific evidence accumulated in the past 50 years should be enough to allow the international community to correct the historical mistake³³ that was made when coca was included on the list of drugs banned by the 1961 Single Convention and coca chewing was slated to be abolished. But there is the danger in the tendency of a reductionist scientific viewpoint to diminish the significance of this complex wonder to merely a chemical compound, a highly nutritious food supplement, or versatile medicine. Equally troubling is the profit-making tendency to want to “add value” by treating this sacred leaf as a raw material to be refined in order to extract a flavoring agent or isolate its notorious alkaloid without recognizing the natural coca leaf’s holistic goodness as well as its sacred and social qualities as an intangible heritage of humanity offered by Andean-Amazonian cultures. The prophetic “Legend of the Coca Leaf” presages us of the difference between the way the leaf is used traditionally in the Andes, and the corrupted form used by Western conquerors. As the Sun God said to the Andean wise man Kjana Chuyma: “[coca] for you shall be strength and life, for your masters it shall be a loathsome and degenerating vice; while for you, natives, it will be an almost spiritual food, for them it shall cause idiocy and madness”

Cocaine & Crack - Law and Policy

(cocaine & crack - possible sentences)
The U.S. Penal Code violations for cocaine/crack cocaine and possible sentences:

Violation: "(ii) 5 kilograms or more of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of - (I) coca leaves, except coca leaves and extracts of coca leaves from which cocaine, ecgonine, and derivatives of ecgonine or their salts have been removed; (II) cocaine, its salts, optical and geometric isomers, and salts of isomers; (III) ecgonine, its derivatives, their salts, isomers, and salts of isomers; or (IV) any compound, mixture, or preparation which contains any quantity of any of the substances referred to in subclauses (I) through (III); (iii) 50 grams or more of a mixture or substance described in clause (ii) which contains cocaine base"
Sentence: Not "less than 10 years or more than life" "No person sentenced under this subparagraph shall be eligible for parole during the term of imprisonment imposed therein."

Violation: "(ii) 500 grams or more of a mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of - [same as above];" "(iii) 5 grams or more of a mixture or substance described in clause (ii) which contains cocaine base"
Sentence: Not "less than 5 years and not more than 40 years" "No person sentenced under this subparagraph shall be eligible for parole during the term of imprisonment imposed therein."

(cocaine & crack - law - former penalties for possession - crack/powder cocaine disparity)
Sec. 844. Penalties for simple possession [of Controlled Substances - also called the Crack/Powder Cocaine Disparity]

STATUTE
(a) Unlawful acts; penalties
".... Notwithstanding the preceding sentence, a person convicted under this subsection for the possession of a mixture or substance which contains cocaine base shall be imprisoned not less than 5 years and not more than 20 years, and fined a minimum of $1,000, if the conviction is a first conviction under this subsection and the amount of the mixture or substance exceeds 5 grams, if the conviction is after a prior conviction for the possession of such a mixture or substance under this subsection becomes final and the amount of the mixture or substance exceeds 3 grams, or if the conviction is after 2 or more prior convictions for the possession of such a mixture or substance under this subsection become final and the amount of the mixture or substance exceeds 1 gram."

UPDATE: On August 3, 2010, President Obama signed the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010. Per the Sentencing Project, "the minimum quantity of crack cocaine that triggers a 5-year mandatory minimum from 5 grams to 28 grams, and from 50 grams to 280 grams to trigger a 10-year mandatory minimum sentence. The amount of powder cocaine required to trigger the 5 and 10-year mandatory minimums remains the same, at 500 grams and 5 kilograms, respectively. The legislation also eliminates the mandatory minimum for simple possession of crack cocaine. The quantity disparity between crack and powder cocaine has moved from 100 to 1 to 18 to 1."

(cocaine - crack cocaine vs powder cocaine) "In July 1986, in the midst of a surge of articles regarding the crack 'epidemic'³⁷ both the United States Senate and the House of Representatives held hearings on the perceived crisis.³⁸ At these hearings, it was asserted that crack: (1) was more addictive than powder cocaine,³⁹ (2) produced physiological effects that were different from and worse than those caused by powder cocaine,⁴⁰ (3) attracted users who could not afford powder cocaine, especially young people,⁴¹ and (4) led to more crime than powder cocaine did.⁴²"

Cocaine & Crack - Research

(cocaine & crack - crack smoking and risk for HIV) "Smoking of crack cocaine was found to be an independent risk factor for HIV seroconversion among people who were injection drug users. This finding points to the urgent need for evidence-based public health initiatives targeted at people who smoke crack cocaine. Innovative interventions that have the potential to reduce HIV transmission in this population, including the distribution of safer crack kits and medically supervised inhalation rooms, need to be evaluated."

(cocaine - 'black cocaine' and drug trafficking organizations) "... while two major groups (the Medellin and Cali cartels) dominated drug-trafficking activities during the late 1980s and early 1990s, today there are hundreds of smaller and more decentralized organizations. These groups are now capable of producing 'black cocaine' that hinders detection and are improving their transportation capabilities by manufacturing boats capable of carrying up to 2 tons of cocaine at high speeds."

(cocaine - law - mandatory minimum disparity) "In establishing the mandatory minimum penalties for cocaine, Congress differentiated between the two principal forms of cocaine – cocaine hydrochloride [hereinafter referred to as powder cocaine] and cocaine base [hereinafter referred to as crack cocaine] – and provided significantly higher punishment for crack cocaine offenses.⁹ As a result of the 1986 Act, federal law¹⁰ requires a five-year mandatory minimum penalty for a first-time trafficking offense involving five grams or more of crack cocaine, or 500 grams or more of powder cocaine, and a ten-year mandatory minimum penalty for a first-time trafficking offense involving 50 grams or more of crack cocaine, or 5,000 grams or more of powder cocaine. Because it takes 100 times more powder cocaine than crack cocaine to trigger the same mandatory minimum penalty, this penalty structure is commonly referred to as the '100-to-1 drug quantity ratio.'"

(cocaine & crack - crack baby myth) "In the final analysis, the notion of the “crack baby” is a myth. So-called “cocaine babies” and “crack babies” are more likely suffering from their mothers’ multiple drug use (particularly alcohol), and/or are “poverty babies” suffering from a lack of medical care and poor nutrition."

(aerial fumigation - coca crops) "Critics note that the spraying has not prevented the tripling of the area under coca cultivation since Pastrana's inauguration, and that the spraying simply destroys the means of livelihood of subsistence farmers and displaces the crops deeper into the jungle. The coca producers have also adapted by developing new varieties of the coca plant, such as the Tingo Maria, which produces three times as much coca as the traditional varieties."

(2001 - cropland subjected to aerial fumigation) "Current projections call for 80,000 hectares to be sprayed (largely in Putumayo), which, if achieved, will bring the annual total to roughly 65 percent of the area currently thought to be under cultivation. Fifteen specially designed fumigation aircraft are due to be transferred to Colombia in 2001, augmenting the eight planes already in action."